What is the difference between Monoism and Dualism?	Dualism: The mind and body are separate entities. Monoism (Materialism): What we know as mind is simple brain activity -> Biopsychology (biological structures can produce complex behaviors)
What is the basic difference between grey matter and white matter?	Grey: High concentration of nerve cell bodies White: Mostly nerve fiber
The nervous system is split into the [...] and the [...].	The nervous system is split into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
What belongs to the central nervous system?	The brain and the spinal cord all other nerves belong to the peripheral nervous system
The brain has around [...] neurons.	The brain has around 80 billion neurons.
What is the estimated ratio of neurons and GLIA?	Neurons: 10-50% Glia: 50-90%
What two parts does a neuron always have?	Soma (Cell body) Axon (Output nerve)
A neuron can have many [...] but only one [...].	A neuron can have many dendrites but only one axon.
What three types of neurons are there, classified by the number of neurites?	Unipolar (Axon) Bipolar (1 Dendrite + 1 Axon) Multipolar (Many Dendrites + Axon)
What is the use of Unipolar and Bipolar neurons?	They are mainly sensory neurons. They take up a lot less space, so they provide a higher resolution for sensory information
You can further classify multipolar neurons into [...] and [...].	You can further classify multipolar neurons into stellate cells and pyramidal cells.
Uses for stellate cells vs pyramidal cells?	stellate: tight dendrite network, perfect for interconnection and information exchange pyramidal: dendrite tree, perfect for transporting information over long distances
Difference between DNA and RNA in terms of contained information?	DNA contains the entire genetic information of the body. RNA only contains the information relevant for a specific building block
What is the difference between an Intron and an Exon?	Exons are the parts of the DNA where the coding information is stored, introns are the noncoding redundant parts.
What is the difference between transcription and splicing?	Transcription: DNA -> RNA (cutting out relevant part) Splicing: RNA -> mRNA (removing redundant introns)
Why do we need mRNA?	RNA is too big to leave the core of the cell.
What do Ribosomes do?	Translation: They use the mRNA to produce proteins.
What happens to mRNA after it leaves the cell core?	It gets picked up by ribosomes that produce a protein based on the mRNA (translation).
What 2 parts are the molecules in the cell membrane made of?	Hydrophilic head (phosphates) Hydrophobic tails (hydrocarbon)
What are the advantages of the structure of the cell membrane?	It is watertight (being held together by water) while still being flexible and allowing proteins like the ion channels to move around freely.
"What is the ""bilayer"" shape of the cell membrane?"	There are two layers of the molecules (inverted to each other).
What is the function of ion channels?	When the ion channels open, ions (electrically charged molecules) are free to stream along a concentration gradient from areas with high concentration to areas with low concentration (either inside or outside the cell). This causes a shift of electrical potential in the cell.
What are Axon collaterals?	Fibres branching off of the Axon (each of them connects to other cells with the terminal button)
What three parts does the Cytoskeleton of the axon consist of?	Microtubule Microfilament Neurofilament
How do Microtubule, Neurofilament and Microfilament work together?	The filements stabilize the microtubule vertically.
How is the cell membrane of the Axon different from the cell membrane of the Soma?	They differ in the type and concentration of ion channels.
What happens to the axons cytoskeleton in Alzheimers disease?	The Microtubules clash together and create clumps (neurofibrillary tangles) → Information cannot be transmitted anymore → Neurons will die off.
How are signals converted at the terminal bouton?	Electrical signal → Chemical signal→ Electrical signal
What is the purpose of the Terminal Button?	It connects the axon to other neurons or body cells.
What is the basic purpose of the dendrites?	Connect to terminal buttons of other axons to make connections. → They take on chemical signals from the pre-synaptic neuron and carry on electrical signals
What is the function of dendritic spines?	Large endings on dendrites → increase contact surface between neurons → highly effective synapses They can change in appearance quickly → very important for plasticity and learning
Why is there little knowledge about the GLIA cells (compared to neurons)?	They are more difficult to measure as they use chemical signals instead of electrical ones.
What role does the Astrocyte play for synaptic clefts?	1. They restrict the spread of neurotransmitters form the synaptic cleft 2. They actively remove neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft if needed
How do Astrocytes influence neurite growth?	They fill in the gaps in-between neurons and define paths for the neurites.
How is the chemical content in the extracellular space around neurons regulated?	Astrocytes store and release e.g. potassium
What are the main 5 types of Glia cells?	Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Schwann Cells Ependymal cells Microglia
What do oligodendrocytes and schwann cells have in common?	They both insulate axons by supplying a myelin sheath around the axon → this increases conduction speed
What is the difference between oligodendrocytes and schwann cells?	Oligodendrocytes appear in the central nervous system Schwann cells appear in the peripheral nervous system
"What are ""Nodes of Ranvier""?"	They are gaps inbetween myelin sheaths in which the electrical signal can be reactivated.
What is the purpose of ependymal cells?	They form the lining of the ventricles.
What is the job of microglia?	"They remove dead and degenerated braincells (""immune cells of the brain""). They also play an important part in learning by shrinking certain parts of the synapses."
"What is meant by the ""Equilibrium Potential"" of the membrane?"	"Ions have two sources of attraction: 1. they want to move along the concentration gradient 2. positively charged ions are attracted by negativity (and vice versa) When those two attractions cancel each other out, ions do not move even if there are open ion channels This is the ""equilibrium"""
How do Potassium and Sodium differ in equilibrium potential?	Potassium: -80mV Sodium: +62 mV
What is the resting potential of a neuron?	Add up all of the equilibrium potentials of the respective ions. → resting membrane potential is about -65 mV
What are the elemental symbols denoting Sodium and Potassium respectively?	Potassium: K+ Sodium: Na+
What part of the cell is responsible for the different concentrations of ions inside/outside the cell?	The sodium-potassium pumps → Proteins that are part of the cell membrane and move ions against the concentration gradient. (2 states that attract and move different ions)
What do sodium-potassium pumps need that ion channels do not?	As they move ions against the concentration gradient, they need energy in the form of ATP in order to change shape and pump the ions.
Under what circumstance is action potential generated in a neuron?	When the membrane potential reaches the threshold of -40 mV.
What are voltage-gated sodium channels?	They are ion channels with positively charged elements inside → they change their shape when a certain membrane potential is reached.
How do voltage-gated ion channels and transmitter-gated ion channels differ in location?	Voltage-gated channels are located on the axon, while transmitter-gated channels are mostly found on the soma and dendrites.
What is the refractory period of the cell membrane?	"The time period in the ""falling"" phase of the action potential graph, where the channels are set up in a way that makes it impossible or highly unlikely for another action potential to be triggered at that patch of the cell membrane."
What is the difference between the absolute and relative refractory period of the cell membrane?	Absolute: Falling phase, no AP can be initiated Relative: Undershoot, only a very strong input can initiate AP
Where in the neuron is the action potential initiated?	In the Axon hillok (the beginning of the axon, the first part where a high density of voltage-gated channels can be found)
How does voltage travel down the axon?	The voltage-gated channels along the axon open as ions diffuse.
How does the axon make sure that the action potential only travels in one direction?	After a patch of axon membrane triggered the action potential, it needs some time to restore as the Na-channels cannot open, and the Na-K-pumps are working on restoring the membrane potential. (a new AP can only be triggered after the Na-channels are ready to open again)
What are the 4 phases of the action potential?	Synaptic input makes the membrane potential less and less negative, threshold is reached -> 1. Rising Phase (The Na+ channels open up and positively charged Sodium enters the cell) -> 2. Overshoot (The positivity reaches its peak and K+ channels open completely, making Potassium stream out of the cell) -> 3. Falling Phase (Membrane potential gets more and more negative) -> 4. Undershoot (Membrane potential is now more negative than resting, Na-K-Pumps work on restoring it)
Repeatedly triggering action potential along the axon is quite slow. How did mammals fix this?	Myelination → Insulating the axon, so that internally, Na can diffuse for a certain distance without ion channels and pumps getting activated. The AP only gets reactivated in each of the gaps of isolation (Node of Ranvier) instead of constantly along the axon.
How much faster are myelinated axons compared to non myelinated axons?	100x as fast
What is the name for the fast propagation of AP due to myelinisation?	Saltatory conduction
What part of the nervous system does multiple sclerosis affect?	The myelin sheaths insulating the axons.
In what form is information coded by neurons?	Digitally, as every action potential looks the same, it can only give a pulse or give no pulse. → the information is encoded in the firing rate (number of APs in a time interval)
What are electrical synapses called?	Gap junctions
How do gap junctions work?	Two adjacent cells can directly exchange ions by connecting two connexons to form an ion channel between the two cells. electrical synapses
What is the synaptic cleft?	A tiny bit of space between the terminal bouton and the next cell. These two do NOT touch!
What is the difference between axondendritic, axonsomatic and axonaxonic synapses?	The location where they connect to the next cell (obvious from the names)
What is another way of describing the receptors in a synapse?	They are neurotransmitter-gated ion channels.
What 4 steps does a chemical synapse go through when an action potential arrives?	(Prev: Vesicles are docked at active zone) 1) Voltage gated Ca+ channels open 2) Ca+ leads to a fusion of the vesicles with the cell membrane (exocytosis) 3) neurotransmitters are released into the cleft, causing transmitter gated ion channels to open 4) the used vesicles get recycled (endocytosis)
What does a synaptic vesicle do?	It stores neurotransmitters and has the ability to merge with the cell membrane to release said neurotransmitters.
What does an influx of Ca+ ions generally mean?	Structural changes for elements inside the cell
What is the difference between exocytosis and endocytosis?	Endocytosis is the process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the cell by engulfing it with the cell membrane, and bringing it into the cell. Exocytosis describes the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and releasing their contents to the outside of the cell.
What is the structural difference between excitatory and inhibitory synapses?	The kind of ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane! Na+ channels for excitatory synapses Cl- channels for inhibitory synapses
What is the functional difference between excitatory and inhibitory synapses?	Excitatory drive the next cell towards triggering an action potential (depolarisation) by making the inside of the cell more positive Inhibitory synapses make the triggering of an action potential in the next cell less likely by driving it towards inhibition (hyperpolarisation, making the cell more negative)
What do IPSP and EPSP stand for?	Inhibitory PostSynaptic Potential Excitatory PostSynaptic Potential
What is the directional difference between chemical and electrical synapses?	Chemical: unidirectional Electrical: bidirectional
What 4 factors does the effectiveness of a synapse depend on?	Location of the synapse Size of the synapse What ion channels are activated by the neurotransmitters What neurotransmitter is used
How do chemical synapses switch between being inhibitory and excitatory?	"They don't! A chemical synapse can either be excitatory OR inhibitory"
What are the 3 major categories of neurotransmitters?	Amino Acids (fast) Amines Peptides (sluggish)
How many different kinds of neurotransmitters are usually found in a synapse?	Mostly ONE.
Except for reuptaking neurotransmitters into the pre synapse, what other 2 ways of removing neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft are there?	Certain enzymes help by breaking down neurotransmitters. They diffuse away from the cleft or get taken up by astrocytes.
How can the removal of the neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft be manipulated in order to improve the efficiency of the neurotransmitters?	e.g. the reuptake of neurotransmitters can be inhibited to make the neurotransmitters stay in the cleft for longer. alternatively, one could inhibit the neurotransmitter-breaking enzymes for a similar effect.
What is the difference between spatial and temporal summation for synaptic integration?	spatial: multiple axons sending action potentials at the same time temporal: one axon sending a quick succession of action potentials
What is the ratio of excitatory to inhibitory synapses in the brain?	85% excitatory 15% inhibitory
Which type of synapse is usually closer to the axon hillok (i vs e)?	inhibitory synapses (making them more powerful overall)
Why are inhibitory synapses so important?	Neurons are strongly interconnected, so an AP will go to every single cell connected to this neuron. → not every one of those neurons should generate an AP, so inhibition makes it so that only those neurons that get triggered by multiple other neurons generate an AP themselves
What will the neural tube and neural crest develop into later on?	neural tube: central nervous system neural crest: peripheral nervous system
What is special about stem cells?	They are omnipotent, meaning they can develop into any cell in the body. They can also replicate by dividing.
What are neuroblasts?	Precursor to cells of the nervous system, they can either become a neuron or a glia cell.
What property of stem cells do neuroblasts retain?	The ability to replicate by dividing → this results in potential exponential growth.
How is it defined what kind of cell the neuroblasts develop into?	By the surrounding chemical signals (by this logic, location has a great effect)
What is the process of cells traveling inside the brain called?	Cell migration
What do radial glia cells do?	They provide scaffolding for the migrating neurons to move across. (When the brain is no longer developing, these glia cells get heavily reduced)
Where do radial glia cells originate?	In the ventricular zone.
How many layers does the human neo-cortex have?	6 layers, each with slightly different cells.
What is the purpose of subplates during the development of the neo-cortex?	They are large neurons that build a stabilizing basis, they are removed/reduced once the development finishes.
What makes the Layer I of the neo-cortex special?	It contains no nerve bodies, only neurites.
How do the layers of the neo-cortex differ?	The contained neurons differ in shape, size and function.
How is the neo-cortex of dyslexic people malorganised?	Bodies from layer 2 can be found in layer 1 (normally, there should be no bodies in layer 1)
What is it called when neuronblasts develop the dendrites and axon?	Differentiation
Do new neurons develop in adults?	Yes, however, at a much slower rate
What is the growth cone?	A structure at the end of an axon that guides the branching of the axon (basically pulling the axon out of the cell body).
What are filopodia?	Finger/Spike like structures coming out of growth cones.
How do neurites find their way towards making correct connections when developing?	They are chemically attracted.
Synapses between axons and dendrites are formed in 3 steps. What are those?	1. A filipodium of the dendrite connects to the axon. 2. The axon develops a presynaptic active zone (including vesicles) 3. The axon releases some neurotransmitters so that the postsynaptic receptor cluster can be built using the correct receptors.
What is the purpose of the Nerve Growth Factor?	Neurons take it up when releasing neurotransmitters. If a neuron is inactive and does not receive NGF, it is programmed to suicide.
How does the synaptic density in the frontal cortex change between the ages 1 and 20?	The density decreases.
What is neural pruning?	Neurons that do not make efficient contact with other cells will die. This results in massive nerve cell loss in the brain shortly before and after birth.
What is the connection between neural pruning and autism?	People with autism show a very high brain volume along with a disorganized structure → the pruning was either ineffective or delayed.
What use does synaptic elimination have at neuromuscular junctions?	Synaptic elimination enables finer motor skills by reducing the connections so that only the most important connections stay.
"What is meant by ""neurons that fire together, wire together""?"	Neurons that fire at the same time process similar information, thus their connection is strengthened, while neurons that fire out of sync lose their link.
What is a Hebbian modification?	A form of synaptic rearrangement where neurons that fire synchronously strengthen their synapses, ultimately building their own little circuits (out-of-sync ones weaken theirs).
What is Neurogenesis?	The process of neuroblasts creating new nervous system cells by dividing and differentiating.
What was the takeaway of the ferret study of Sur and colleagues?	During a sensitive period, the input into the brain parts determines their function.
What stimulates neurogenesis in adult brains?	A social and/or enriched environment.
How can stem cells be used to help (animal) stroke patients?	Stem cells cause neurons to regrow, leading to a faster recovery of motor function.
Why are stem cells usually not used in humans to restore brain cells?	They are hard to control, so uncontrolled growth and tumor building are likely (using already differentiated neurons has a lower risk and has been shown to be effective in mice)
What is the basic idea behind learning-dependant plasticity?	Learning new skills changes the structure of the brain in related regions.
What is the concept of cross-modal plasticity?	When certain parts of the brain go unused (e.g. blind people), these areas adapt to help out in other functions (e.g. hearing)
Why are blind people better at hearing?	Part of their (normally unused) visual cortex now helps out with the processing of auditory information.
On a neuron level, how can certain brain areas take on the jobs of others?	The brain develops neurons that respond to multiple signals (e.g. auditory and visual) and thereby connect the two systems.
What happens to the regions of the brain that correspond to certain limbs after amputation?	Not a lot. They get modified a bit, but the representation remains in the brain.
What brain activity causes phantom pain?	The brain underwent a maladaptive structural change that causes an unwanted coactivation of the areas representing the amputated body part when unrelated actions are being performed.
What are the two features separating the human brain from simpler mammals?	1. large cerebrum 2. gyrification
What is special about the way the anatomical reference system works for humans?	"As the system stems from animal research, humans need to be viewed as if they were standing on their arms and legs, ""on all fours""."
What are the three ways of looking at the brain (anatomical reference system)?	coronal (through face) sagital (through ear) axial/horizontal (from top of head)
What two parts does the forebrain consist of?	cerebrum diencephalon
What two parts does the brain stem consist of?	midbrain medulla oblongata
"What are the terms for the german ""Großhirn"" and ""Kleinhirn""?"	Großhirn: cerebrum Kleinhirn: cerebellum
What are meninges?	They are three layers of membranes that wrap the brain, protecting it.
What are the three layers of meninges?	Dura Mater Arachnoidea Pia Mater
What is the job of the dura mater?	The dura mater is a hard membrane that protects the brain against outside forces.
What is the space under the arachnoidea filled with?	Water and blood vessels.
What 4 ventricles are there in the grown human brain?	2 lateral ventricles third ventricle fourth ventricle
What are the two uses of the ventricles?	"1. They serve as an internal cushion to protect the brain from damage 2. They play a part in the brain's immune system"
What effect do diseases like Alzheimers have on ventricles?	As neural tissue shrinks, the ventricles grow in size.
"When talking about the ""cortex"", what is usually meant?"	The neo-cortex of the cerebrum.
What are the 4 main lobes of the brain?	frontal lobe parietal lobe occipital lobe temporal lobe
In the brain, what are the associated regions next to the task-specific zones used for?	They partake in higher level functionality (e.g. integrating visual information in order to recognize a face)
What are Brodman areas?	They are numberings on brain regions that provide a general reference system when talking about the brain.
What is the job of the corpus callosum?	It is the main connection between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum.
What is the main connection between the two brain hemispheres of the cerebrum?	The corpus callosum
Which arm is controlled by which brain hemisphere?	right hemisphere: The left arm left hemisphere: The right arm (crossing of the pyrammidal tract)
What is the main task of the amygdala?	Emotional processing (especially fear) e.g. it playes a major role in attentional focus to facial regions that are relevant for emotions like fear (recognition/filtering)
Where did the hippocampus get its name?	It looks like a seahorse flipped on its head.
What is the most important task of the hippocampus?	It plays an integral part in forming memories.
What two parts does the Diencephalon consist of?	Thalamus and Hypothalamus
What does the Thalamus do?	It takes input from sensory organs and connects to different brain areas. It is responsible for the activation of relevant brain areas. → acts as the main relay station of the brain
What does the Hypothalamus do?	It acts as the primary interface to the hormone system (and even releases some hormones itself)
What two classes of nucli are there in the midbrain?	colliclus superior colliclus inferior
What does the colliclus superior do?	takes part in visual processing, helps in spacial processing
What does the colliculus inferior do?	Helps process auditory information
What is the main job of the cerebellum?	Coordinating highly trained, automatic processes
What is the counterpart of the corpus callosum in the cerebellum?	The vermis.
What is the medulla oblongata?	The main connection between the brain and the spinal cord
What is the main connection between the brain and the spinal cord called?	The Medulla Oblongata
What is the ascending reticular arousal system?	The part of the medulla oblongata that controls the global activation levels of the brain (e.g. activating the brain when reacting to a loud bang)
What is the part of the medulla oblongata called that switches the control of the hemispheres to the respective body part?	Pyrammidal tract
What is special about the relation of the cerebellum and the two body halfs?	The assignment body half - hemisphere is not inverted!
Why does the spinal cord have gray matter?	The local circuitry enables reflexes.
What is the difference between efferents and afferents in the spinal cord?	afferents handle sensory input efferents handle motor output
What are cranial nerves?	They are nerves not going over the spinal cord. They are mainly connected to muscles and sensory organs in the face
What are the two different arteries found in the brain?	carotid arteries vertrebral arteris
What does the blood barrier in our brain do?	It is selective in which molecules are let through → the brain gets protected from poisoning
What are basal ganglia?	Conglomerates of grey matter that control interaction between the neocortex and diencephalon (activation/deactivation of certain neocortical regions)
In the cortico-striato-thalamic loop, which two elements are affecting the putamen?	The frontal cortex excites it (comes up with plan for action) The substantia nigra excites it (uses the neurotransmitter dopamine)
In the cortico-striato-thalamic loop, which elements are affecting the pallidum?	The putamen inhibits it The nucleus subthalamicus excites it
In the cortico-striato-thalamic loop, what will happen to the thalamus during idle?	It gets deactivated/inhibited by the pallidum. (The pallidum inhibits the thalamus)
What is the final step of an action activation in the cortico-striato-thalamic loop?	The thalamus does not get inhibited anymore, causing it to activate the supplementary motor area.
"What happens to the cortico-striato-thalmic loop in parkinsons's disease?"	The substantia nigra is weaker, meaning the excitation on the putamen is lower, meaning the inhibition on the pallidum is weaker, meaning the inhibition on the thalamus is stronger, meaning the exitation on the motor areas is lower
What is the difference between depolarisation and hyperpolarisation?	depolarisation: making the cell more positive hyperpolarisation: making the cell more negative
What is the difference between the somatomotoric nervous system and the autonomous nervous system in the way they connect to muscles?	somatomotoric: direct connection to muscle autonomous: connected indirectly do synapses connecting to ganglia
What are the 4 jobs of the sympathicus?	4 Fs: Fight Flight Fright Sex
What are the 4 jobs of the parasympathicus?	Digestion Immune response Energy Storage Growth
Under which circumstance do both sympathicus and parasympathicus activate?	Under no circumstance.
Do sympathicus and parasympathicus directly control the organs like the heart?	No, they can only modulate them.
Which two structures in the brain control the ANS?	The Hypothalamus The nucleus of the solitary tract (part of medulla oblongata)
Where is the enteric division of the ANS located?	In the guts (digestive tract)
What is the job of the enteric division?	It houses neurons that are responsible for the movement of the guts and digestion.
How is the brain involved in the enteric division?	No direct control, the brain is not needed. The brain does, however, modulate the activity of the enteric division.
"What is ""Neurohormonal Communication""?"	Neurons release hormones into the bloodstream and other neurons have receptors for those.
Where is the hypothalamus in relation to the ventricles?	It is wrapped around the third ventricle.
What are neurosecretory cells?	Neurons that can release hormones.
What are the two lobes of the pituitary gland?	The anterior and the posterior lobe.
Which lobe of the pituitary gland do magnocellar neurosecretory cells project into?	The posterior lobe.
What two types of hormones do magnocellar neurosecretory cells release?	Oxytocin Vasopressin
What is the effect of Oxytocin?	motherly behavior cuddle hormone social trust
What happened to males that were administered oxytocin in the study of Chen at al. (2014)?	They found other, strong males more likeable than the control group, suggesting that the oxytocin reduced the perceived potential threat.
What does Vasopressin do?	It is important for regulating blood pressure and thirst.
Which pituitary lobe do parvocellular neusosecretory cells affect?	The anterior lobe.
What is the fundamental difference between magnocellar neurosecretory and parvocellar neurosecratory cells?	Magnocellar release hormones directly into the bloodstream Parvocellar release hypophyseotropic hormones into the blood, which leads to the production of hormones in the anterior lobe, which are then released into the bloodstream
What kind of cells are only found in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, but not in the posterior?	Endocrinic gland cells (releasing hormones)
What 3 parts are involved in the stress response (neurophysiology)?	HPA Axis: Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland Adrenal Gland
What are the 4 steps of the stress response (neurophysiology)?	1. Stress leads to a release of CRH in the hypothalamus 2. The pituitary gland releases ACTH 3. Adrenal gland (at kidney) releases cortisol (the stress hormone) 4. Cortisol leads to sympathetic activation
What two brain structures regulate the HPA-axis response?	Amygdala and Hippocampus
How is the Amygdala involved in the regulation of the HPA-Axis response?	Sensory information is processed in the basolateral nucleus and passed onto the central nucleus → The central nucleus activities the HPA-Axis and increases the stress response.
How is the hippocampus involved in regulating the HPA-Axis response?	Receptors in the hippocampus measure cortisol levels and inhibit CRH release in the hypothalamus if it is too high. → This inhibits the HPA-Axis activation
In patients with anxiety disorder, how is the amygdala affected?	The amygdala is over activated, resulting in an over activation in the HPA-Axis
How does the brain change during behavioral therapy for specific phobias?	The over activation of the amygdala disappears and activity in the orbito-frontal cortex increases (hinting that the patient attained cognitive control over the fear response).
What is the basic idea of neuromodulation?	A small number of neurons affect a lot of other neurons. This is done by neurons affecting the activation of other neurons through chemicals not in a specific way, but rather through a change in their activation baseline.
What are the 2 main differences between neurotransmitters and hormones?	1. Neurotransmitters are always released by neurons, while hormones can be released by both neurons and glands. 2. Hormones are released into the blood stream, neurotransmitters are always released into the synaptic cleft.
What are the 2 branches of the dopamine neurotransmitter system?	Meso-cortical System (→ middle part of prefrontal cortex) Striatale System
Where does the dopamine neurotransmitter system originate?	ventral tegmental area
What parts of the brain are drugs (nicotine, cocaine, heroin) mostly targetting, resulting in addiction?	Dopamine neurotransmitter system → increased release of dopamine
What were early hypotheses about the location of the pleasure center of the brain?	That it was in the ventral tegmental area.
Where does the noradrenergic neurotransmitter system originate?	In the locus coeruleus
What is special about the number of neurons in the noradrenergic neurotransmitter system?	It only has around 24 000 neurons, but each neuron connects to up to 250k synapses
What areas of the brain does the noradrenergic neurotransmitter system effect?	Basically all of them. Activity in the locus coeruleus raises the general activation level of the brain resulting in arousal and alertness
Other than the primary motor area, what other 2 motor areas are there?	pre motor area supplementary motor area
Other than the cortex, what other part of the brain can actively/consciously control movement?	The right red nucleus. However, it only handles very gross motor skills.
What are somatotopic representations?	The concept that neighbouring body parts also have neighbouring representations in the motor related areas.
Does the body mass of a body part correlate to the size of the neuronal representation?	No. E.g. the hands and the face occupy significantly larger areas in the cortex when compared to the legs and arms.
When does the premotor cortex fire?	When an action is being planned. While the action is being executed, there is no more activation.
What is the main role of the supplementary motor area?	It sends packages of complex sequential movements to the primary motor area.
When doing complex sequences of movements, why is there a delay between an inhibition of the SMA and the stopping of the action?	Because the action sequences are transmitted as packages → some part of the sequence was already delivered beforehand and can still be executed.
What does the primary MA do with the movement sequence it gets from the SMA?	It sends it down the spinal cord towards the motor neurons.
What are alpha motor neurons?	Neurons that are located in the spinal cord that directly connect to muscle fibre with their axons.
What determines how finely grained a muscle can be controlled?	The number of motor neurons targetting that muscle.
Aside from the axons going down the spinal cord, what other 2 sources do alpha motor neurons get input from?	sensory input spinal interneurons
How does the polysynaptic flexor and crossed-extensor reflex work?	The sensory input is strong enough to trigger a reflex (e.g. stepped on a nail) The input is processed at interneurons, which excite the flexor and inhibit the extendor on the site of the leg that got the sensory input. This effect is mirrored on the other side to keep balance. (exciting extendor and inhibiting flexor)
What is the concept of mirrorneurons?	Certain neurons that are responsible for certain motor actions also activate when observing these actions being performed by others.
What is the hypothesized use of the mirror neuron phenomenon?	Imitation and learning through observation
How could walking without a brain function on a neuronal level?	A certain loop configuration in the flexor-stressor circuit could result in alternating flexor and extendor activations. (Every activation on one side inhibits the other one to a certain extend, upon which this dynamic is turned around)
What two dimensions can neuroimaging methods be categorized into?	non-invasive - invasive methods central measures - peripheral measures (central: directly measure neuronal activity or modulate it peripheral: indirectly measure neurons, e.g. oxygen levels of areas)
What are spatial and temporal resolution of neuroimaging methods?	Temporal: how precise can the timing of neuronal activity be measured? Spatial: how precise can the location of neuronal activity be measured?
What is the basic idea behind EEG?	Elektroencephalography Electrodes are placed at the scalp surface and measure tiny changes of electrical potential in dendrites.
What are the drawbacks of EEG?	Very susceptible to noise and artifacts No action potential can be measured, only summation of EPSP and IPSP Poor spatial resolution (10cm)
How does EEG perform in spatial and temporal resolution?	Poor spatial resolution (10cm) Great temporal resolution (ms)
How can the spatial accuracy of EEG be improved?	3D EEG source analysis distributing multiple electrode sides across the brain can be used to more accurately determine where a signal comes from
"What is ""Event Related Potential"" and how does it related to EEG analysis??"	A common analysis method for EEG data: The stimulus is shown multiple times -> all EEG responses are averaged -> the noise should vanish in the result The resulting signal should be the original brain response, the ERP (it consists of components that are associated with particular cognitive functions)
What is the basic idea behind MEG?	Magnetencephalography The postsynaptic potentials generate tiny magnetic fields -> sensors of the MEG measure those
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using MEG over EEG?	+ Much better spatial resolution while retaining temporal resolution - Much more expensive and susceptible to outside influences
What is the idea behind PET?	Positron Emission Tomography 1. Radioactive tracers are injected into the bloodstream 2. Those bind glucose 3. Under the influence of gamma rays, this glucose emits positrons when used 4. The location of these emitted positrons is measured
What do PET actually measure?	Metabolism in the brain (use of glucose)
How are spatial and temporal resolution for PET?	Spatial in the range of cm Temporal in the range of minutes (baaaaad)
What is the idea behind MRI?	Magnet Resonance Imaging A strong magnetic field aligns the molecules in the tissue (50/50 in direction) But! some molecules remain in a labile state and can be flipped by short pulses that are perpendicular to the magnetic field. When they then flip back, tiny bits of energy are released, which is measured by sesors. -> Different kinds of tissue will emit different levels of energy, so brain tissue can be imaged ! This approach is limited to structure, it does not measure functionality. !
What is the idea behind fMRI?	functional MRI The oxygenation of blood influences the magnetic properties (time delay before molecules flip back and send out energy) -> This information can give insight into how oxygenated blood is (BOLD) -> active brain regions are oversupplied with oxygen (this allows us to link MRI responses to activity)
What is a BOLD signal?	Blood Oxygen Level Dependant Signal -> used to infer functional information in the fMRI
How does fMRI hold up in spatial and temporal resolution?	Spatial: few mm Temporal: several seconds :(
What is the idea behind fNIRS?	functional Near-Infrared Specroscopy similarily to fMRI, it measures oxygen in the brain. However, it achieves this by emitting IR light into the brain and using the fact that oxygenated blood reflects more IR-light -> stronger signal in oxygenated regions
Advantages and disadvantages of using fNIRS over fMRI?	+ it is cheaper and more convenient (no loud noise, portable) - the spatial resolution is worse and subcortical information cannot be extracted
"What is Faraday's law (layman explanation)?"	When there is electrical current on a wire, a perpendicular electrical field is generated that also induces electricity on other wires in the field.
What is the basic idea of TMS?	"Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Faraday's law is utilized: a rapid change in of current in a coil near the brain creates a magnetic field that induces current in tissue"
What are 3 uses of TMS?	1) Action potential can be elicited 2) Virtual lesions (simulated patients with very short-term disabilities in brain areas) 3) Exitability can be modulated
What are the spatial and temporal resolutions of TMS?	spatial: mm to cm temporal: ms
What is the idea behind tDCS?	Transcranial direct current stimulation A weak current is constantly applied to the brain for several minutes -> cathodal stimulation leads to decreased cortical activity -> anodal stimulation leads to increased cortical activity
Compared to tDCS, what does tACS do differently?	The current that is applied is not constant but rather alternating
From all neuroimaging methods discussed in the lecture, which can get information from subcortical regions?	PET and fMRI
What is the idea behind optical imaging?	Injection of a dye that changes based on neuronal activity or chemical conditions → a window is put into the head of an animal to observe these changes
What is the idea behind optogenetics?	"""Viruses"" are inserted that change ion channels so that they respond to light. Glass fibres are then inserted into the animals brain to accurately control these ion channels. (very precise)"
What part of the eye is also part of the nervous system?	The retina.
In what two parts is the retina split?	nasal Retina temporal Retina
What is the fovea?	The part of the eye that processes our central vision information, aka the space that we focus on. The rest of the retina is responsible for our peripheral vision
Why is there a blind spot in our eye?	The part where the optic nerve connects to the retina has no receptors on it.
Why is the nasal side of the retina bigger ?	As light is mirrored before it hits the retina, the nasal part being bigger means that the peripheral view gets better coverage (only one eye is covers each side compared to the middle, which is covered by both eyes)
Why are we not confused by the blind spot in our eyes, even when we close one eye?	Our brain fills in the visual information by interpolating.
What 5 kind of cells does the retina consist of?	Bottom to top: 1. Photoreceptors (translate light to electrical signals) 2. Horizontal cells (interconnect PR and connect) 3. Bipolar cells 4. Amacrin cells (connecting) 5. Ganglia cells (they have long axons that build the optic nerve)
Out of all of the cells in the retina, which are the ones that emit action potential?	Only the ganglia cells
Why do the layers of the retina seem inverted?	(The photoreceptors are at the bottom) It is assumed that light going through all of the layers prevents reflections from within the eye from reaching the photoreceptors.
What two types of photoreceptors are there in the eye?	Rods and Cones
How do rods and cones process color differently?	Cones can differentiate many colors, while rods mostly deal with black/white on gradients
Where in the retina is the lowest concentration of rods found?	In the blind spot.
How do rods and cones compare in size?	Rods are a lot larger than cones (cones provide a better resolution per space)
How do rods and cones differ in concentration across the retina?	In the fovea, we have a very high concentration of cones. This falls off quickly when going towards the periphery, with more rods being present. Those also fall off when going even further towards the periphery.
What 3 types of cones do we have on the retina?	blue, green, red → for processing mixtures of colors
Why are we bad at seeing colors in the dark?	The cones in our retina are less light-sensitive than the rods.
How is the retinal ganglia connected to the visual cortex?	Through the Thalamus
What parts of the two eyes map to which hemisphere of the brain?	The temporal parts go into the SAME side The nasal parts go into the OPPOSITE side → things in the middle of the visual field arrive in both hemispheres
What is retinotopic organisation?	Neighboring parts of the retina are processed in neighbouring parts of the visual cortex (flipped and mirrored)
How are primitive shapes like lines recognized in the visual cortex?	"In a group of neurons that is responsible for a certain part of the visual field, different ""columns"" of neurons respond to different orientations of lines → This identifies smaller line segments"
How does the visual cortex bind contrasts and lines together into meaningful percepts?	"""Gamma band response"" (visual binding) Neurons that respond to similar line orientations in different parts of the visual field respond in synchronous rhythmic activity, signalling that a longer line is recognized."
What are the 2 pathways of higher visual processing?	dorsal path: orientation in space ventral path: identification of objects
To which parts of the brain is the retinal ganglia connected?	Thalamus: 90% of signals Colliclus superior: 10% of signals (eye movement control, visual attention → location)
What advantage does visual processing in the colliclus superior bring?	Information regarding attention (and location of stimuli) arrives in the parietal cortex faster than the rest of the visual information, which makes the processing in the parietal cortex more efficient
What happens when the V1 is destroyed, but the midbrain stays intact?	Blindsight occurs Participants cannot consciously see anymore, however, locational information is still present in the brain, allowing them to subconsciously act upon this information
What is the difference between a covert and an overt shift of attention ?	covert: no eye movement overt: eye movement involved
What is the general finding of Posner tasks?	Covert attention shifts improve the reaction time and identification rates of objects present at the cued location and worsen both rt and accuracy on non-cued locations.
How does neural amplification play into (covert) visual attention?	The neural activity in the retinotopically corresponding part of the visual cortex is increased, causing stronger and more efficient neural processing in that area.
What is Visuo-Spatial-Neglect?	Patients have problems shifting their attention to one side (most commonly left). They do not process things in that part of the visual field consciously.
What is a common cause for Visou-Spatial-Neglect?	Lesions in the posterior Parietal Cortex.
What are the 2 jobs of the frontal eye field?	Guiding eye saccades Covert shifts of attention (monkey study)
What part of the brain is strongly connected to the frontal eye field?	Posterior brain areas
What 2 kinds of attention networks are there in the brain?	The Dorsal (frontal eye field, superior parietal lobe) and Ventral (temporal-parietal junction, ventrolateral frontal cortex) Network.
How do the 2 attention networks differ in function?	dorsal: top-down attention network (deliberate) ventral: stimulus-driven attention network
What part of the brain is responsible for sustained attention?	The ACC - Anterior Cingulate Cortex
What are the 2 manifestations of ADHD?	Inattentive Hyper-impulsive
What three types of changes can you expect in the brain of an ADHD patient?	Structural Changes (reduced grey matter in striatum/basal ganglia) Functional Changes (reduced activity in ACC) Genetic Abnormalities (Dopamine Receptor Genes)
How does ADHD work on a molecular level?	Dopamine receptors a striatal synapses are taking dopamine into the presynapse too quickly -> reduced effect of action potential presynaptic autoreceptors register low dopamine levels in cleft and leak more dopamine into the cleft for compensation -> (tonic vs phasic dopamine level) The signal-to-noise-ratio of dopamine is poor, the activation in the prefrontal cortex is inefficient
What is Methylphenidate more commonly known as?	Ritalin
How does Ritalin work?	The dopamine transporters are blocked -> more dopamine in the cleft -> less leakage by the autoreceptors -> better signal-to-noise-ratio -> more efficient activation of frontal cortex
What does Ritalin do for neurotypical patients with no ADHD?	Makes them hyperactive
What is neurofeedback training?	A reward is given for certain brain activation patterns, so they are learned via operant conditioning and automatically trigger more often. This can be used to treat ADHD patients.
What is the difference between declarative and non declarative memory?	declarative: long term memory that we can put into words (episodic, semantic) non-declarative : long term memory that we can not put into words (playing the piano)
Where do we get the idea that there are multiple memory systems in the first place?	There are varying kinds of amnesia that all affect our memory abilities differently.
What is the difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia?	Retrograde: Events/Things learned leading up to the trauma cannot be recalled Anterogade: Memory formation after the trauma is impaired
What is transient global amnesia?	A very severe amnesia that only lasts for a day, after which the patient completely recovers.
"What did Lashley's rat-brain removal experiment find out about the location of memories?"	That there is no specific region in the brain that stores memories, the whole brain is involved in learning and memory.
"What was Hebb's idea of how memories are stored?"	Memories are stored in distributed networks (cell assemblies) of neurons that are set up by simultaneous activation. (subpopulations of those can reactivate the entire assembly)
Where in the brain are specific memories stored?	In the brain areas used for the original sensory processing.
What part of the brain is essential for the formation of episodic long term memory?	The Hippocampus
What was the deal with Patient H.M.?	His hippocampus got removed, resulting in him not being able to form episodic long term memories.
What does a strong activation of the hippocampus during a specific event imply?	The memory of that event will be stronger.
What is the idea behind radial arm mazes?	Structure with a central area and corridors reaching outwards in multiple directions. Mouses must remember which of the arms they already visited, making it an episodic memory task.
What are place cells?	"Hippocampal neurons that spike when we are in a specific location of the environment that we have previously explored. This location is also referred to as the neuron's place field."
What is the difference between place cells and grid cells in regards to their activation pattern?	Place cells only activate for a specific location Grid cells activate at a range of different locations following a pattern specific to every grid cell.
How do grid cells estimate the position in space?	The grid maps of the cells are spatially shifted and have different scales. By overlapping the activation from multiple different grid cells, the position can be estimated.
How do place cells and grid cells differ in relation to objects?	Place cells are object-specific, they help us orient in relation to specific landmarks Grid cells are object-independent, they only approximate our location in a space
What did the London Taxi Driver Study find?	"Compared to the control group, the posterior part of the hippocampus was larger in taxi drivers (as they were experienced in orienting the ""maze"" of London). The taxi drivers longer on the job also showed a higher density of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus, further supporting the hypothesis that the hippocampus is heavily involved in memories related to spatial orienting."
What two kinds of cells are involved in spatial memory?	place cells and grid cells
What effect does a hippocampus lesion have on non-declarative memory?	Very little / None at all
What part of the brain is important in forming non-declarative memory?	The Basal Ganglia
"What information can Parkinson's disease patients give us in regards to the brain parts involved in non-declarative memory?"	"Parkinson's disease results in a heavy impairment of non-declarative memory. As this illness is a basal ganglia deficit, the phenomenon strongly hints towards there being a connection between the basal ganglia and non-declarative memory."
"What pattern can be witnessed when parkinsons's disease patients try the weather card prediction task?"	As it is a non-declarative memory task, patients with PD fail to learn the underlying pattern. To contrast: In declarative memory tasks, patients with PD perform normally.
What two loops are involved in learning?	Late learning loop -> Cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical loop Early learning loop -> Cortico-cerebello-thalamo-cortical loop
How do we know that the primary motor cortex is involved in non-declarative memory processing?	When learning a motor task: Primary motor cortex activation increases with implicit motor learning, but decreases as soon as explicit knowledge about the task is available.
What is the main difference between the working memory and the long-term memroy?	The temporal component: information in the working memory is stored for a much shorter period of time
How long does information stay in the working memory?	In the range of seconds.
What is the part of the working memory called that does the active processing of information?	Central executive.
What are the two main systems in the working memory?	Phonetic loop Visuospatial sketchpad
What are the two limitations of the working memory?	temporal: can only store information for several seconds capacity: can only store a very limited number of items
Why does it seem that the phonetic loop can store more items when compared to the visuospatial sketchpad?	In the phonetic loop, it is easier to chunk items, making it possible to store a bigger number of individual items.
How many items can the visuospatial sketchpad and phonetic loop store respectively?	visuo: 3 - 4 phonetic: 7 +/- 2
How are memories stored in the working memory? (older idea)	Prefrontal neurons keep firing continuously (reactivating) in order to retain the information
What part of the brain is responsible for transient storage of visuo-spatial information?	The interparietal sulcus (IPS)
"What is the ""activity silent"" working memory?"	Storage in the working memory via short-term synaptic plasticity, unspecific stimulus can reactivate these memories
What 2 different ideas are there on how information is retained in the working memory?	activity-silent working memory (short-term plasticity) continuously reactivating neurons that keep information alive
Where in the brain the working memory implemented?	Across a distributed cortical network
When looking at the networks of the working memory, which neural networks are they most similar to?	The networks of attention
What is the job of the prefrontal areas in the working memory?	Controlling working memory processes (not only storage)
Where in the brain is (visual) information of the working memory stored?	Mostly in posterior brain areas
How are attention networks connected to the working memory?	We can focus our attention on items stored in the working memory, causing stronger activations in V1-V4 while involving both the FEF and IPS
What was found out about the effect of sleep on fruit flies?	Sleep is not necessary for the vital functions of fruit flies.
"What is the world record for ""longest time awake"" for humans?"	11 Days (264 hours)
How does the proportion of REM sleep change when aging?	Decreases steadily until the age of 13
What happens to body temperature when sleeping?	It is lowered by about one degree
What happens to growth and stress hormones while sleeping?	Growth hormone is released during the first half of the night Cortisol is released during the second half of the night → activates the sympathetic nervous system
"What is our ""internal clock"" called?"	Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN is also fine)
How are the suprachiasmatic nuclei adjusted?	They are light-sensitive ganglion cells that receive input from the retina to adjust the internal clock to the day-night cycle.
"What happens to the internal clock if there is no external ""zeitgeber""?"	The internal rhythm of the SCN is followed (but typically changes to 25 hours)
What happens when there is a lesion to the suprachiasmatic nuclei?	The affected being does not have a regular sleep-wake rhythm anymore.
How do the suprachiasmatic nuclei work?	"They have a special ""clock gene"" that modulates the protein synthesis rate, leading to fluctuations in neural activity/the firing rate of neurons."
What are the 5 Stages of sleeping?	Stage 1 - 4 of non-REM REM sleep
"Why is REM called ""paradoxical sleep""?"	Eye movements are rapid, the heart rate and EEG signal resemble that of an awake person all the while the body is paralyzed.
Why is it difficult to identify REM sleep on the EEG?	The EEG signal is really similar to that of an awake person.
What 2 indicators can be seen on EEG signals to determine if a person is asleep?	"1. ""sleep spindles"" firing with 12-15 Hz for 0.5-1 seconds 2. ""K complex"" high voltage wave with really high amplitude"
What is the difference between alpha, theta and delta rhythms?	The amplitude, frequency, and sleep stage at which they appear Alpha: high frequency, low amplitude → awake and REM sleep Theta: lower frequency and higher amplitude → stage 1 and 2 sleep Delta: low frequency and high amplitude → Stage 3 and 4 sleep
How is the cortex activated during REM sleep?	high activity of visual cortex and limbic brain areas downregulation in the rest of the cortex
What 4 effects happen when sleep is initiated?	1. Less activity in the Ascending Reticular Activating System 2. Deactivation of the locus coeruleus 3. Increase in GABAergic activity in the cortex → inhibition leasing to less activation through sensory inputs 4. Histamine and orexin release at the hypothalamus is reduced
What two kinds of activations happen during the transition from non-REM to REM sleep?	PGO Spikes Activation of REM-on cells
What are PGO spikes?	activation patterns that start in the pons, then appear in the geniculate nucleus of the thalamus and finally appear in the occipital cortex → every spike is associated with an eye-movement
How does the proportion of REM sleep change during regular sleep?	Less REM in the early hours of sleep, more REM in the late hours of sleep
What paralyzes the body during REM?	Activity that is descending from the brain to the muscles is stopped by the pons.
How does consolidation of learned things differ during early and late sleep?	early non-REM sleep: better consolidation of declarative memory late REM sleep: better consolidation of non-declarative memory
During which sleep phase can memory consolidation be boosted with external cues?	During non-REM sleep (slow wave)
Which activation patterns do place cells display during sleep?	"Place cells are activated in the same order as they are during exploration making for a ""hippocampal replay"". (some activation patterns seem to also transfer to the visual cortex) This effect looks like rats are ""dreaming"" of running through the maze."
How is long term memory roughly established on a molecular level?	Cell assemblies change their synaptic strengths.
What two forms of procedural learning are there?	non-associative learning associative learning
What is the difference between associative and non-associative learning?	non-associative learning: no combination of different stimuli (habituation, sensitisation) associative learning: combination of different stimuli or between stimulus and behavior (classical conditioning, instrumental/operant conditioning)
"Why is the aplysia californica used for studying ""learning"" processes?"	The functions of its neurons are well studied and understood.
Where does Habituation take place?	At the synapse between sensory and motor neurons. It works by attenuating the neurotransmitter release at the pre synapse.
Where does Sensitisation take place?	<On a serotonergic synapse on the (excitatory presynapse between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron)> → modulating the synapse
Why does Sensitisation last for days?	The protein kinase A lasts that long.
What is the first step of Sensitisation?	Action potential arrives at the terminal button of the neuron L29 → Serotonin gets released
What effect does the release of serotonin have during Sensitistion?	"Serotinin receptors are activated → ""molecular dynamics"" → Protein Kinase A happens in sensory neuron"
What effect does the Protein Kinase A in the sensory neuron have during sensitisation?	Some Potassium (K+) channels get blocked.
What effect does the blocking of Potassium channels have during Sensitisation?	Any arriving action potential gets prolonged.
What effect does the prolonged action potential have during Sensitisation?	more calcium influx → more vesicles will release neurotransmitters → stronger response on the postsynaptic motor neuron
What 2 things do Sensitisation and Classical Conditioning have in common?	Same neurocircuit/synapse Same basic mechanism
What is the difference between Sensitisation and Classical Conditioning on a molecular level?	In Classical conditioning, the sensory neuron (cs) and L29 (us) activate at the same time, as opposed to the L29 (us) alone → CA2+ streams into terminal button of sensory neuron (because ca2+ channels are open on the depolarized membrane) → much more Protein Kinase A than during Sensitisation → even more K+ channels blocked, even longer AP → stronger response on the motor neuron
What neurotransmitter plays the most important role during Sensitisation and Classical Conditioning?	Serotonin
What neurotransmitter plays the most important role in long-term potentiation (LTP)?	Glutamate
What two types of glutamate-gated ion channels can be found on the postsynaptic membrane?	AMPA receptors (sodium) NMDA receptors (sodium and calcium)
How do NMDA receptors work?	They are blocked by a magnesium atom UNLESS 1. glutamate binds to the receptor 2. the postsynaptic membrane is depolarized
What 2 kinds of ions can flow through NMDA receptors?	sodium and calcium
What are the 2 possible sources of depolarization for NMDA receptors?	1. a lot of repeated activations 2. activations on neighbouring synapses
What happens when the NMDA channels open during long-term potentiation?	An influx of calcium, which leads to a relocation of AMPA receptors to the postsynaptic membrane → synapse is much more efficient
What happens without strong NMDA receptor activity?	Less influx of calcium → AMPA receptors are lost → synapse becomes less effective → long-term depression
Why is long term depression important during learning?	It improves the signal-to-noise-ratio by weakening less important synapses.
What is the difference between Sensitation and Habituation?	Habituation: the reaction to a stimulus decreases upon repeated presentation. Sensitation: the reaction to a stimulus is increased by a reaction to a second stimulus.
What are the 3 processes involved in the generation of proteins from DNA?	Transcription Splicing Translation
What are gap junctions?	Electrical synapses
How does the brain activity differ for congenitally blind and late blind people when reading braille?	Congenitally blind people use the higher visual areas Late blind people ALSO use the primary visual cortex
"During the neuron's resting phase, where are more Sodium Ions? Inside or outside of the cell?"	More Na+ outside of the cell.
"During the neuron's resting phase, where are more Potassium Ions? Inside or outside the cell?"	More K+ inside the cell.
"How does the neuron's cell membrane's permeability differ for K+ and Na+?"	The cell membrane is 40 times more permeable for K+ when compared to Na+
If you remove the left thalamus, what will happen to the visual field?	You lose sight in the right side of your visual field. (right nasal part and left temporal part)
What do Ritalin and Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors have in common?	They increase the efficiency of synapses by prolonging the time that neurotransmitters stay in the synaptic cleft.
A stimulus is presented in the left visual field, which brain hemisphere processes it?	The right hemisphere.
What part of the autonomous nervous system narrows the blood vessels?	The sympathicus
"What is the name of the ""cuddle hormone""?"	Oxytocin
Which hormone controls thirst and blood pressure?	Vasopressin
Why are dendrites unable to elicit action potential?	Because they would need voltage-gated ions channels for that (those are mostly found on axons).
What post synaptic potential can be found at synapses using chloride receptors (Cl)?	IPSP
What are the big and plastic post synaptic areas on the dendrites called?	Dendritic spines
"How did Hippocrates' and Aristotle's view of the brain differ?"	Hippocrates: Brain is the seat of intelligence and involved in thinking Aristoteles: Brain is cooling the blood, heart is center of intellect.
Why is it futile to stimulate the amygdala with TMS?	The amygdala is subcortical, TMS can only stimulate cortical areas.
When using EEG to measure brain activity in response to a stimulus, how often should the stimulus be presented?	Very often (100s of times), so that the unsystematic noise of the signal gets cancelled out.
In which two areas of the brain do neurons spike during the retention of spatial locations in short-term memory?	Prefrontal areas Parietal areas
How did Moore and colleagues prove the relevance of the FEF to visual attention using monkeys?	They stimulated the FEF weakly, leading to shifts of visual attention without eye saccades.
Why is the cell membrane more permeable for K+ during the resting phase?	The K+ channels are always slightly opened
Where in the brain can neurons be found that become tuned to certain faces?	In the inferior temporal cortex
What gives the white matter its name?	The myelin sheaths insulating the nerve fiber.